EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

OBNotes.HTM  by WILF H. RATZBURG

...behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives	In recent years, probably the most popular motivational theory has been the Expectancy Theory (also known as the Valence-Instrumentality- Expectancy Theory). Although there are a number of theories found with this general title, they all have their roots in Victor Vroom's 1964 work on motivation.
	ALTERNATIVES AND CHOICES
...maximize pleasure and minimize pain	Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. The key elements to this theory are referred to as Expectancy (E), Instrumentality (I), and Valence (V). Critical to the understanding of the theory is the understanding that each of these factors represents a belief.
...individuals pursue activities that generate the greatest reward
	Vroom's theory suggests that the individual will consider the outcomes associated with various levels of performance (from an entire spectrum of performance possibilities), and elect to pursue the level that generates the greatest reward for him or her.
	Expectancy: "What's the probability that, if I work very hard, I'll be able to do a good job?"
...employee will try a task, if they believe that it can be done	Expectancy refers to the strength of a person's belief about whether or not a particular job performance is attainable. Assuming all other things are equal, an employee will be motivated to try a task, if he or she believes that it can be done. This expectancy of performance may be thought of in terms of probabilities ranging from zero (a case of "I can't do it!") to 1.0 ("I have no doubt whatsoever that I can do this job!")
	A number of factors can contribute to an employee's expectancy perceptions: the level of confidence in the skills required for the task the amount of support that may be expected from superiors and subordinates the quality of the materials and equipment the availability of pertinent information Previous success at the task has also been shown to strengthen expectancy beliefs.
	Instrumentality: "What's the probability that, if I do a good job, that there will be some jkind of outcome in it for me?"
...good performance may, or may not, be instrumental in the acquisition of rewards	If an employee believes that a high level of performance will be instrumental for the acquisition of outcomes which may be gratifying, then the employee will place a high value on performing well. Vroom defines Instrumentality as a probability belief linking one outcome (a high level of performance, for example) to another outcome (a reward).
...in sales jobs, performance is positively instrumental for the acquisition of commisions	Instrumentality may range from a probability of 1.0 (meaning that the attainment of the second outcome -- the reward -- is certain if the first outcome -- excellent job performance -- is attained) through zero (meaning there is no likely relationship between the first outcome and the second). An example of zero instrumentality would be exam grades that were distributed randomly (as opposed to be awarded on the basis of excellent exam performance). Commission pay schemes are designed to make employees perceive that performance is positively instrumental for the acquisition of money.
	For management to ensure high levels of performance, it must tie desired outcomes (positive valence) to high performance, and ensure that the connection is communicated to employees. The VIE theory holds that people have preferences among various outcomes. These preferences tend to reflect a person's underlying need state.
	Valence: "Is the outcome I get of any value to me?"
	The term Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with respect to outcomes (rewards). An outcome is positively valent if an employee would prefer having it to not having it. An outcome that the employee would rather avoid ( fatigue, stress, noise, layoffs) is negatively valent. Outcomes towards which the employee appears indifferent are said to have zero valence.Valences refer to the level of satisfaction people expect to get from the outcome (as opposed to the actual satisfaction they get once they have attained the reward).
Motivation = (Expectancy)*(Instrumentality)*(Val ence)	Vroom suggests that an employee's beliefs about Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence interact psychologically to create a motivational force such that the employee acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoid pain.
	People elect to pursue levels of job performance that they believe will maximize their overall best interests (their subjective expected utility).
...individuals will be motivated to perform based on two expectancies 1. the subjective probability that effort exerted will lead to the desired performance 2. the subjective probability that a given performance will lead to certain desired outcomes
...the two expectancies interact with each other and with the valence (value) of outcomes to determine an overall level of motivation
	There will be no motivational forces acting on an employee if any of these three conditions hold: (1) the person does not believe that he/she can successfully perform the required task (2) the person believes that successful task performance will not be associated with positively valent outcomes (3) the person believes that outcomes associated with successful task completion will be negatively valent (have no value for that person)

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EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

OBNotes.HTM   by WILF H. RATZBURG

	Behavioral Consequences of Rewards
.	The distribution of rewards in organizations has important behavioral consequences. Employees are rarely passive observers of the events that occur around them at the workplace. They are observers and, perhaps more importantly, they evaluate the events they observe. It will be useful to use exchange theory to try to understand these evaluative processes.
.	Exchange Theory
.	Exchange theories are based on two assumptions about human behavior.
.	there is an assumed similarity between the process through which individual evaluate their social relationships and their economic transactions in the market. Contributions to the social relationship may be perceived as investments for which people expect some return (it is assumed that people do not enter into social relationships without some expectation that the time and resources they commit to them will be somehow be returned)
.	it is assumed that people demand fairness in their social interactions and that information about the perceived fairness is obtained by observation of what others get out of the relationship.
Where there is relative equality between outcomes and contributions of both parties to an exchange, satisfaction is likely to result.	To summarize, individuals in social interactions behave in a manner similar to that posited for the "economic man" of classical economics. The assumption is that individuals are motivated to maximize their rewards and minimize their costs
.	Perception: Inputs Compared with Outputs
The important consideration is that each person evaluates his or her outcomes and inputs by comparing them with those of others.	The major components of exchange relationships are inputs and outcomes. Inputs, like investments, are what a person puts into the relationship. Outcomes are the things that result from the exchange. The relative importance of the inputs and outputs is a matter of perception. Only I can really say how much value I place on whatever input I have in the exchange. My expectations with respect to output will depend on whatever value I have placed on my inputs, and this may have very little to do with any objective characteristics of the situation.
.	Equity: the Input / Output Ratio
	Equity is said to exist whenever the ratio of my outcomes to inputs is equal to the ratio of the other person's outcomes and inputs. For example, employees may exhibit satisfaction on a job that demands a great deal and for which they receive very little if, and only if, their coworkers are in similar positions.
	Equity theory (see Adams, 1965; and Walster, Walster, and Berscheid, 1978) suggests that individuals evaluate the ratio of their inputs to outcomes for a given job in relation to other, referent employees.Inequity is assumed (or percieved) to exist if the ratios are not equal. As a result of the tension thus created by this inequity, employees are motivated to restore equity. Outcomes or inputs may be altered (both objectively or psychologically); comparative referents (employees being compared) may be changed; or the employee may withdraw from the situation The major postulates of Equity Theory can be summarized: (1) perceived inequity creates tension in the individual (2) the amount of tension is proportional to the magnitude of the perceived inequity (3) the tension created in the individual will motivate him or her to reduce it (4) the strength of the motivation to reduce inequity is proportional to the perceived inequity
.	Consequences of Perceived Inequity
Equity theory suggests that underrewarded individuals might be motivated to decrease their performance in an effort to restore equity	Equity theory suggests that overrewarded individuals might be motivated to increase their performance and underrewarded individuals to decrease their performance in an effort to restore equity. However, very often, overrewarded employees will find ways to rationalize their overreward; they assume they "deserve" it.
.	The concept of equity is most often interpreted as a positive association between an employee's effort on the job and the pay he or she receives. Whoever contributes more is believed to be entitled to more of the outputs. This may be referred to as the equity norm. This equity norm is generally learned through a process of socialization. For example, most groups establish norms that induce members to behave equitably.However, our society also promotes other notions of equity or fairness. In social welfare systems or old-age medical assistance schemes, resources -- outputs -- are distributed according to need. In general, our society appears to also have norms that accept this distribution of outputs as equitable. In trying to predict how an individual will react to a particular reward system, we need to know which equity norm they believe should be applied; one based on inputs or one based on need.
.

  Last updated: 01/09/24

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The Hackman-Oldham Job Characteristics Model and Job Design

The Hackman-Oldham Job Characteristics Model and Job Design

OBNotes.HTM  by WILF H. RATZBURG

.	JOB SPECIALIZATION
.	In many organizations, one finds that job specialization is the rule. There are clearly many advantages to creating specialized jobs: job are mastered quickly jobs can be changed quickly and easily training costs are minimized However, there are also negative consequences to specialized jobs: monotony of tasks causes worker alienation employees may have to be paid extra because of the alienation created by monotonous jobs monotony and boredom may result in poor quality workmanship worker motivation is reduced
.	Herzberg
.	Frederick Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory addresses the issue of workplace motivation. According to Herzberg, motivation comes from job content. Therefore, it is important for managers to consider the nature of the jobs they ask their employees to do. Herzberg's approach can be summarized by: If you want people to do a good job for you, then you must give them a good job to do. The implication of Herzberg's work is that practically everyone will respond to a job high in motivating factors. Experience, however, suggests that this is not nearly as universally true has Herzberg postulated. Herzberg's view, when restricted to workers who earn a decent wage (those who have their lower order needs satisfied as per Maslow), appears to make sense. However, it begs the question: "What is a 'good' job?"
	What's A Good Job?
	Whereas Herzberg advocated the creation of "good" jobs, Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham built on that concept by attempting to refine our understanding of what a "good job" actually looks like. In other words, what are the characteristics of motivating jobs. Further, they also suggested that different workers react differently to jobs (not quite the universal reaction posited by Herzberg).Hackman and Oldham's research led them to conclude that five key characteristics could be used to describe the motivating potential of a job. These characteristics are: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. They also found that  workers who possessed what Hackman and Oldham called "high growth needs" responded positively to high motivating potential jobs, but those with low growth needs did not.
	Motivating Potential
	Hackman and Oldham sought to "measure" the motivating potential of jobs. In other words, to measure the extent that a job exhibits the five characteristics listed above.Their research found that jobs scoring high in terms of a combination of these five characteristics resulted in higher job satisfaction and productivity than jobs scoring low. For a job to be intrinsically motivating, all five characteristics must be simultaneously present, to some extent.
	Motivating Characteristics
	Skill Variety:
	Skill variety describes the degree to which a job requires the exercise of a number of different skills, abilities, or talents. Such activities must not merely be different, but they must be distinct enough to require different skills.
	Task Identity:
	Task identity defines the extent to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.
	Task Significance:
	Task significance refers to the importance of the job; the degree to which the job has an impact on the lives of other people, the immediate organization or the external environment.
	Autonomy:
	Autonomy is the degree to which the jobholder is free to schedule the pace of his or her work and determine the procedures to be used.
	Feedback:
	Feedback is the degree to which the individual doing a job obtains information about the effectiveness of the performance. Feedback does not only refer to supervisory feedback, but also the ability to observe the results of their work.
	Calculating a Motivationg Potential Score (MPS)
.	A motivating job (a high MPS score) shows evidence of all five core job characteristics. Skill variety, task identity, and task significance all serve to account for a sense of "meaningfulness". A job with autonomy serves to give the jobholder a sense of responsibility, while feedback satisfies the need for knowledge. (see figure below)
.	The MPS Equation
.	The motivationg potential of a job is calculated using the equation below.
.	The score calculated using this equation is only a crude indication of a job's motivational potential. First, it is important to remember that different individuals may respond to the variables differently -- the values assigned to the 5 variables are a matter of the job incumbent's perception. Thus, two different people may produce a different MP Score for the same job. The utility in this equation lies in its ability to pinpoint particular problems for a specific job. Then, having pinpointed the problem, the job can be "re-designed" to correct the shortcomings in one or more of the five critical components.

Last updated: 01/09/24

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HERZBERG'S TWO FACTOR THEORY

Interview with Frederick Herzberg

Motivation-Hygiene Theory 

The motivation of employees is important to organizations since it is one of several factors that significantly affects the productivity of employees.

Raising the level of motivation increases profitability through greater creativity and commitment in employees.

Herzberg's Two Factor Theory, also known as the Motivation-Hygiene Theory, was derived from a study designed to test the concept that people have two sets of needs:
.



1. their needs as animals to avoid pain

2. their needs as humans to grow psychologically
. Herzberg's Study

Herzberg's study consisted of a series of interviews that sought to elicit responses to the questions:


(1) Recall a time when you felt exceptionally good about your job. Why did you feel that way about the job? Did this feeling affect your job performance in any way? Did this feeling have an impact on your personal relationships or your well- being?

(2) Recall a time on the job that resulted in negative feelings? Describe the sequence of events that resulted in these negative feelings.
. RESEARCH RESULTS
. It appeared, from the research, that the things making people happy on the job and those making them unhappy had two separate themes.
. SATISFACTION (MOTIVATION)

Motivation-Hygiene Theory:

Five factors stood out as strong determiners of job satisfaction:


achievement
recognition
work itself
responsibility
advancement

The last three factors were found to be most important for bringing about lasting changes of attitude. It should be noted, that recognition refers to recognition for achievement as opposed to recognition in the human relations sense.
. DISSATISFACTION (HYGIENE)



The determinants of job dissatisfaction were found to be:


company policy
administrative policies
supervision
salary
interpersonal relations
working conditions


. It appears that the central theme of the satisfiers (also called motivators) is one having to do with the relationship the employee has with his or her job; job content.

The theme of the dissatisfiers appears to be related to the environment or context of the job. These dissatisfiers seem to have little effect on positive job attitudes (in some of the literature, these dissatisfiers were called hygiene or maintenance factors).
. Two Dimensions

At the psychological level, the two dimensions of job attitudes appear to reflect a two-dimensional need structure:


· one need structure for the avoidance of unpleasantness, and

· a parallel need system for personal growth

For Herzberg, motivation results from personal growth and is based on an innate need to grow. In other words, people find satisfaction in work that is interesting and challenging. A desire to fulfill our potential drives us to seek growth and provides the incentive to achieve.

According to Herzberg, the idea that the work one does is significant leads, ultimately, to satisfaction with the the work itself. Employees will be motivated to do work that they percieve to be significant.

From a philosophical perspective, it is Herzberg's position that it is the responsibility of society's dominant institutions to provide for the growth and well being of people. In our society, one such dominant organization is the business institution. Therefore it is the responsibility of business and industry to provide the means for growth and self actualization (see Maslow).
.





Herzberg's theory thus posits that there are two classes of factors that influence employee motivation; intrinsic factors and the extrinsic factors.

The intrinsic factors were also called the motivator factors and were related to job satisfaction. The extrinsic factors were called hygiene factors and were related to job dissatisfaction.

Motivators (intrinsic factors) led to job satisfaction because of a need for growth and self actualization, and hygiene (extrinsic) factors led to job dissatisfaction because of a need to avoid unpleasantness.

The negative or positive KITA or "kick in the a**" approach to employee motivation yields short- range results, but rarely generates any actual motivation. In fact, to call it an "approach to motivation" is to clearly misunderstand motivation as Herzberg understood it. KITA yields movement -- the avoidance of pain -- not motivation.

Positive KITA, in the form of raises and incentives reduces time spent at work, inflates wages and benefits, and overemphasizes human relations.

K-I-T-A techniques fail to instill self-generating motivation in workers. Job content factors, such as achievement and responsibility, are motivators, while job environment factors are hygiene or KITA factors. Motivators are the key to satisfaction.
. HERZBERG APPLIED:



In an era of increasing competition, it is important for organizations to effectively utilize all available resources; including human resources.

In the workplace, the motivation of employees is important to the organization as it is one of the variables that affects the employee productivity.

Fundamental to Herzberg's position is the notion that motivation is a result of personal growth and is based on an innate need to grow. What this means is that people find satisfaction in work that is interesting and challenging.
. JOB ENRICHMENT

JOB ENRICHMENT: The idea of job enrichment is probably the most significant contribution of Herzberg's theory.

Meaningful tasks allow for growth, and job enrichment is a relatively simple method for facilitating this growth:

adding different tasks to a job to provide greater involvement and interaction with the task.

Adding tasks can raise the level of challenge in any particular job to a level commensurate with the abilities of an employee. It might be argued that, if a job can not be enriched and it is not challenging to the person in that position, then that person ought to be replaced by someone who will find the job challenging.
. JOB LOADING

JOB LOADING: There are two forms of job loading.

Horizontal job loading: adding tasks to a job but not adding any responsibility or challenge -- the meaningless of the job is simply increased. Horizontal loading ought to be avoided!
Vertical job loading: adding meaningful tasks that will lead to growth -- additional tasks that permit growth and provide motivating factors.


.



By providing motivators and removing hygienes, management can facilitate the growth of employees. This is essential to both the individual and the organization.Growth makes the employee more valuable to the organization because of his/her ability to perform higher order duties.



...management cannot really motivate employees, it can only create the environment in which the employees motivate themselves
. ANSWERING THE CRITICS OF THE THEORY

Critics of Herzberg's theory argue that the sample population was small and limited to a group of professionals. Numerous replication studies have been performed to check the validity of the original results. Mostly, the results are comparable to the results obtained in the original experiment and indicate that motivators are the primary cause of job satisfaction.

There is also the criticism that the study applies only to middle management professionals (the original sample consisted of 200 middle management professionals).

However, an application of Maslow's concepts suggests that people work to achieve what they do not have. As such, the set of motivators can differ from person to person. Instead of saying that Herzberg’s findings only apply to middle level professionals, it would be more correct to say that Herzberg’s findings apply to people that have needs and wants similar to the test subjects.


When attempting to motivate employees, it is important to know their needs. Effective motivation results from a determination of what will motivate employees and then providing the factors that address those needs.


. Interview with Frederick Herzberg

===   NOTES   ===
...two hundred engineers and accountants in Pittsburgh were interviewed

To test the hypothesis, engineers and accountants were interviewed to assess events that led to significant changes in their job attitudes and to determine the factors that caused those changes




WHAT PEOPLE WANT FROM THEIR JOBS:

"...the things people said positively about their job experiences were not the opposite of what they said negatively about their experiences...."

(Frederick Herzberg from a 1971 interview in Management Review)






"...the factors which make people happy all are related to what people did: the job content... what made people unhappy was related to... job environment, job context... the way they're treated."

(Frederick Herzberg from a 1971 interview in Management Review)




JOB SATISFACTION:

"...job satisfaction... and job dissatisfaction are not opposites; they are completely separate continua, like hearing and vision."

(Frederick Herzberg from a 1971 interview in Management Review)






KITA

when employees do something

"...to avoid being hurt, that's movement. I called it

KITA...

when a human being does something, he's motivated. The intiative comes from within...."




The desire to fulfill our potential drives us to seek growth and provides the incentive to achieve -- MOTIVATION




Workers with greater ability have an opportunity to demonstrate their potential and are better utilized by allowing them to use more of their talents



If you cannot challenge workers, motivational problems will result



If you want people to do a good job for you, give them a good job to do




Examples of vertical job loading:
increasing accountability
removing controls
making periodic reports available to workers
granting job freedom
granting job authority
introducing new and challenging tasks
assigning specific or specialized tasks









It is the responsibility of management to create an environment that encourages employee growth and self actualization...




Pay is not the most important thing in "job satisfaction"; personal satisfaction, feeling appreciated, and a feeling of doing something worth while all out rank pay as the reason employees stay in their present job.

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McCLELLAND'S ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and McClelland's Achievement Motivation Theory

Motivation research has long considered human motives and needs. However, isolating people's motivational needs can be a difficult process because most people are not explicitly aware of what their motives are. In attempting to understand employee motivation, Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs. David McClelland furthered this idea in his learned needs theory. McClelland's experimental work identified sets of motivators present to varying degrees in different people. He proposed that these needs were socially acquired or learned. That is, the extent to which these motivators are present varies from person to person, and depends on the individual and his or her background.

McClelland's experiment -- the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) -- consisted of showing individuals a series of pictures and asking them to give brief descriptions of what was happening in the pictures. The responses were analyzed in terms of the presence or absence of certain themes. The themes McClelland and his associates were looking for revolved around the following motivators: achievement, affiliation and power.

According to David McClelland, regardless of culture or gender, people are driven by three motives:

• achievement,
• affiliation, and
• influence.

Since McClelland's first experiments, over 1,000 studies relevant to achievement motivation have been conducted. These studies strongly support the theory. 

Achievement (nAch) 

The need for achievement is characterized by the wish to take responsibility for finding solutions to problems, master complex tasks, set goals, get feedback on level of success. 

Affiliation (nAff)

The need for affiliation is characterized by a desire to belong, an enjoyment of teamwork, a concern about interpersonal relationships, and a need reduce uncertainty. 

Power (nP) 

The need for power is characterized by a drive to control and influence others, a need to win arguments, a need to persuade and prevail. 

According to McClelland, the presence of these motives or drives in an individual indicates a predisposition to behave in certain ways. Therefore, from a manager's perspective, recognizing which need is dominant in any particular individual affects the way in which that person can be motivated.

UNDERSTANDING MOTIVES -- So, what does all this mean?

High achievement motivation

Specifically, achievement motivation is defined as a non-conscious concern for achieving excellence through individual efforts. Such individuals set challenging goals for themselves, assume personal responsibility for goal accomplishment, are highly persistent in the pursuit of these goals, take calculated risks to achieve the goals, and actively collect and use information for purposes of feedback. High achievement motivated managers are also strongly inclined to be personally involved in performing their organizational tasks. However, they may also be reluctant to delegate authority and responsibility. Thus, high achievement motivation may be expected to result in poor performance of high- level executives in large organizations.

High achievement motivation is predicted to contribute to effective entrepreneurship and effective leadership of small task-oriented groups.

Achievement motivation is positively related to the leadership of small task-oriented groups and small entrepreneurial firms and negatively related to the effectiveness of high- level managers in complex organizations or in political situations.

High power motivation

Power motivation is defined as the concern for acquiring status and having an impact on others. McClelland used power motivation as a measure of social influence behaviors. Clearly, since most management activities require the use of social influence behaviors and since power motivation measures an individual's desire to influence, the power motive is important for leadership effectiveness.David McClelland proposed the Leader Motive Profile Theory (LMP theory) in which he argued that a high power motivation, greater than the affiliation motive, is predictive of leader effectiveness.

Highly power-motivated individuals obtain great satisfaction from the exercise of influence. Consequently, their interest in the exercise of leadership is sustained.

High power motivation is predicted to result in effective managerial performance in middle and high-level positions. However, unless constrained in some manner, some power-motivated managers may also be predicted to exercise power in an aggressive manner for self-aggrandizing purposes, to the detriment of their organizations.

High affiliation motivation

Affiliative motivation is defined as a nonconscious concern for establishing, maintaining, and restoring close personal relationships with others. Individuals with high affiliative motivation tend to be non-assertive, submissive, and dependent on others.Such managers are expected to manage on the basis of personal relationships with subordinates. This may result in them showing favoritism toward some.

As managers, highly affiliative individuals are predicted to be reluctant to monitor the behavior of subordinates, give negative feedback to others, or discipline their subordinates. However, when the power motive is higher than the affiliative motive, individuals are disinclined to engage in dysfunctional management behaviors such as submissiveness, reluctance to monitor and
discipline subordinates, and favoritism.

Need for Achievement and Entrepreneurship

Originally, the need for achievement was the greatest concern for McClelland. He was particularly interested in this need and associated behaviors because most organizations want their employees to achieve. The 'need achievement' refers to an unconscious disposition to energize and drive. High nAch individuals are constantly 'competing with standards of excellence'. Further, they are attracted to tasks of moderate difficulty. McClelland further described the profile of an entrepreneur as someone high in nAch (Achievement) and low in nP (Power), while good managers have high nPower and low nAch.

Over four decades of research into the characteristics of entrepreneurs has established that the essential need for achievement for entrepreneurship is learned at an early age. Persons with a high 'need achievement' have a general predisposition towards entrepreneurial activity.

Summary

Adults are assumed to possess all three motivations to one degree or another, however, one of the motives is usually dominant. Managers need to identify what motivates others and to create appropriately motivating conditions for them.People with achievement motives are motivated by standards of excellence, delineated roles and responsibilities and concrete, timely feedback. Those with affiliation motives are motivated when they can accomplish things with people they know and trust. And the power motive is activated when people are allowed to have an impact, impress those in power, or beat competitors.

===   NOTES   ===

Criticizing economics as being an overly simplistic, and rationalistic discipline, David McClelland points out that it does not really account for how humans actually behave. For example, Elton Mayo and his work at the Hawthorne Western Electric plant in the 1920s and 30s recognized the non-economic motivations of workers.

In the Hawthorne Studies... the importance of the peer group was recognized in determining employee motivation.

People driven by the achievement motive like to test themselves against their environment and attain standards of excellence. In areas of management where high levels of delegation may be required, high achievement motivated individuals may be unable to give up their personal involvement with the task.

People motivated by power are concerned about their impact on other people--convincing someone of their point of view or empowering others around them, and finding ways to connect with and influence powerful people. Power motivation is assumed to be predictive of leader effectiveness.

...the power motive is necessary for leaders to be effective because it induces them to engage in social influence behavior

People driven by the affiliation motive are concerned about the quality of their relationships. They enter into relationships for the sake of the relationships--not for gain or influence. They are concerned with how harmonious and reliable their relationships are and are likely to be upset when disruptions to relationships occur.

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ALDERFER'S ERG THEORY

Clayton Alderfer reworked Maslow's Need Hierarchy to align it more closely with empirical research. Alderfer's theory is called the ERG theory -- Existence, Relatedness, and Growth.

Existence refers to our concern with basic material existence requirements; what Maslow called physiological and safety needs. 

Relatedness refers to the desire we have for maintaining interpersonal relationships; similar to Maslow's social/love need, and the external component of his esteem need. 

Growth refers to an intrinsic desire for personal development; the intrinsic component of Maslow's esteem need, and self-actualization.

Alderfer's ERG theory differs from Maslow's Need Hierarchy insofar as ERG theory demonstrates that more than one need may be operative at the same time. ERG theory does not assume a rigid hierarchy where a lower need must be substantially satisfied before one can move on. Alderfer also deals with frustration-regression. That is, if a higher-order need is frustrated, an individual then seeks to increase the satisfaction of a lower-order need.

This is consistent with Douglas MacGregor's observations in explaining his Theory X/Theory Y dichotomy: the inability to satisfy a need for social interaction might increase the desire for more money or better working conditions. ERG theory also accounts for differences in need preferences between cultures better than Maslow's Need Hierarchy.

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MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Motivational theories dealing with the needs of employees fall under the general rubric of Content Theories of Motivation.

Content theories posit that workers' behaviors are a function of the workers' abilities to satisfy their felt needs at the workplace. A basic assumption of all need theories is that, when need deficiencies exist, individuals are motivated into action in order to satisfy them. The best known of the Content Theories of Motivation is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. (Abraham Maslow)


Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is based on the assumption that people are motivated by a series of five universal needs. These needs are ranked, according to the order in which they influence human behavior, in hierarchical fashion.

Physiological needs are deemed to be the lowest- level needs. These needs include the need for food, oxygen, sex, and drink.
So long as physiological needs are unsatisfied, they exist as a driving or motivating force in a person's life. A hungry person has a felt need. This felt need sets up both psychological and physical tensions that manifest themselves in overt behaviors directed at reducing those tensions (getting something to eat). Once the hunger is sated, the tension is reduced, and the need for food ceases to motivate. At this point (assuming the needs for sex, drink, and other physiological requirements are also satisfied) the next higher order need becomes the motivating need.
Thus, safety needs -- the needs for shelter and security -- become the motivators of human behavior.
Safety needs include a desire for security, stability, dependency, protection, freedom from fear and anxiety, and a need for structure, order, and law. In everyday life, we may see this as a need to be able to fall asleep at night, secure in the knowledge that we will awake alive and unharmed. In the workplace this needs translates into a need for at least a minimal degree of employment security; the knowledge that we cannot be fired on a whim and that appropriate levels of effort and productivity will ensure continued employment.
Social needs include the need for belongingness and love.
Generally, as gregarious creatures, human have a need to belong. In the workplace, this need may be satisfied by an ability to interact with one's coworkers and perhaps to be able to work collaboratively with these colleagues.
After social needs have been satisfied, ego and esteem needs become the motivating needs.
Esteem needs include the desire for self-respect, self-esteem, and the esteem of others. When focused externally, these needs also include the desire for reputation, prestige, status, fame, glory, dominance, recognition, attention, importance, and appreciation.
The highest need in Maslow's hierarchy is that of self-actualization; the need for self-realization, continuous self-development, and the process of becoming all that a person is capable of becoming.
.
. Douglas MacGregor (of Theory X and Theory Y fame) used to following example to illustrate the motivating potential of unfulfilled needs in Maslow's Theory:


Consider your own need for air. Except as you are deprived of it, it has no appreciable motivating effect upon your behavior.




Money is usually considered relatively unimportant for satisfying higher-level needs. The general belief is that most North American workers, because of adequate levels of pay, are mainly concerned about higher-level needs.


Douglas MacGregor, in attempting to explain the extent to which one may observe Theory X - type behavior in many organizations, suggests that organizations do little to satisfy their employee's higher-order needs (Social and Esteem). In general, a pay cheque allows employees to satisfy their lower order needs (Physiological and Safety).

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MOTIVATION

As managers, we are interested in productivity. Therefore, we are interested in knowing how to improve the productivity of our employees. This productivity is a human behavior and, as such, is influenced by a number of factors.

First, productivity is a function of each of the employees' unique personalities. Second, employees' behaviors are influenced by the environments in which they find themselves. For example, an employee's behavior (and productivity) will be influenced by a dirty, hot, noisy, or dangerous worksite. Finally, an employee's behavior will be a function of that employee's innate drives or felt needs and the opportunities he or she has to satisfy those drives or needs in the workplace.

Employees' performance is, of course, partially determined by the opportunities given them to demonstrate their abilities. If employees are never given opportunities to utilize all of their skills, then the employer may never have the benefit of their total performance. Work performance is also contingent upon employee abilities. If employees lack the learned skills or innate talents to do a particular job, then performance will be less than optimal. A third dimension of performance is motivation.

A generalized model of motivation posits a set of innate drives and felt needs for each employee. The employee brings these drives and needs to the workplace and they influence the employee's workplace behavior and productivity. These drives and needs create a tension within the employee if left unsatisfied. This tension may be both physical (manifested through the symptoms of stress) and psychological. The employee thus engages in whatever behaviors are necessary to reduce this tension. If the behavior undertaken is appropriate, it may be assumed that the tension is reduced and that tension-reducing behaviors are ceased.

As seen in the discussion above, motivation is a dynamic process; people may be motivated by different things (needs and drives) during different periods of their lives. In the following sections, we will discuss both content and process theories of motivation.

Content theories focus on the differences among different employees' needs. Process theories focus on the choices individual employees get to make regarding their actions.

INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR -- WHAT IS IT?

OBNotes.HTM by WILF H. RATZBURG

To begin this discussion, let's examine the notion of behaviour first. For purposes of our discussion, we will assume that a person's behaviour is a function of that person and his/her environment, or B = f (P, E).

Next, let's put the individual into a specific environment; in an organizational environment. What does this person's behaviour look like?

Like other inputs into an enterprise, human beings employed by the enterprise constitute a resource - in this case, a human resource. All an enterprise's resources must be managed to ensure both the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. It takes economists, accountants, and financial analysts to understand and utilize the firm's monetary resources.

Similarly, technologists, engineers, and trades people serve to help management utilize the firm's material and production facilities efficiently. It is the role of the Human Resource Manager, and others, skilled in the analysis of human interaction with the work environment, to assist management in the proper utilization of human resources.


The study of Organizational Behaviour facilitates the process of explaining, understanding, predicting, maintaining, and changing employee behaviour in an organizational setting.

• Organizational Behaviour:
• explaining,
• understanding,
• predicting, 
• maintaining, and
• changing 
• employee behavior

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To facilitate the study of Organizational Behaviour we will look at human behaviour in the organization from three perspectives.

Psychological Perspective

First, we will examine human behavior from a psychological perspective. This level of analysis will permit us to examine human traits and characteristics with a view to understanding how elements of personality may influence an individual's responses to his or her organizational environment.

Sociological Perspective

Second, we will look at how individuals interact in small group or team environments (a sociological perspective).

Perspective of organizational factors

Finally, it will be necessary to examine the impact of larger or wider organizational factors on the individuals within that organization.

Organizational Behaviour is the sum
of individual processes, other
processes that occur within
smaller groups and, finally, processes
pertaining to aspects of
the organization itself

In summary, to understand behaviour in the organization, we must examine the interaction of individuals with the various factors the individuals are likely to encounter in that organizational setting. The behaviours encountered in the organization are, of course, exceedingly diverse. The diversity of human personalities, interacting with a vast array of organizational environments, results in considerable variation in resulting behaviours.

It may be useful, in an introduction to Organizational Behaviour  to ask some questions about what human beings expect from an organization. The answers are, of course, as varied as the people in organizations are diverse. However, some generalizations may be made. Employees generally expect respect. Furthermore, employees want meaningful work that uses their skills and respects their ability to use their minds in efforts to organize their work.

The organization, having a mission or mandate, has certain expectations of its employees. Most importantly, employees are hired to enable the firm to meet its production, service, and economic objectives.

• Employees expect respect and meaningful work
• The organization expects its employees to follow the rules and policies of the firm and to perform its required tasks

Less obvious is the dependency relationship that exists between the firm and its employees. Since employees depend on the firm for some reason (pay, as an example), then the firm can exert power over these employees. The result of this power relationship might be that the firm is able to demand even more of the employee in terms of task performance and obedience.
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It is apparent from an examination of employee and organizational expectations, that an incongruity may exist between these expectations. Employees naturally respond to this incongruity in a number of ways. Some may seek a promotion within the firm in the hope that, at higher levels on the hierarchy, they will be able to fulfill their various needs to grow and use their skills. However, if the prospects for promotion are limited or thwarted, there is a chance that employee response will be manifested more negatively. Such negative responses include withdrawal, militant unionism, reduction of output or, in extreme cases, theft or sabotage of product or equipment.

For an interesting discussion of the differing expectations of employees and employers, see Peter Drucker's Employing the Whole Man

In attempting to understand, cope with, and react to employee responses to the incongruity of expectations, managers turn to the models, theories, and conceptualizations of Organizational Behaviour.

In conclusion, we recall that the employees of the firm are resources - human resources. Just as accountants provide the expertise the firm requires to best manage its financial resources, so the Organizational Behaviour specialist provides the expertise needed to manage the firm's human resources.

To gain further insight into the field of Organizational Behaviour  we will examine the multidisciplinary origins of the subject.

ORIGINS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Many of the important contributions to Organizational Behaviour have come from Psychology. Psychological theories have helped us explain and predict individual behaviour.  Many of the theories dealing with personality, attitude, learning, motivation, and stress have been applied in Organizational Behaviour to understand work-related phenomena such as job satisfaction, commitment, absenteeism, turnover, and worker well-being.

Sociologists, studying the structure and function of small groups within a society have contributed greatly to a more complete understanding of behaviour within organizations. Taking their cue from Sociologists, scholars in the field of Organizational Behaviour have studied the effects of the structure and function of work organization on the behaviour of groups, as well as the individuals within those groups. Many of the concepts and theories about groups and the processes of communication, decision making, conflict, and politics used in Organizational Behaviour, are rooted in the field of Social Psychology.

The field of Political Science has helped us understand how differences in preferences and interests lead to conflict and power struggles between groups within organizations.

Economics has assisted students of Organizational Behaviour in understanding how competition for scarce resources both within and between organizations leads these organizations to increase their commitment to efficiency and productivity (with concomitant influences on the behaviour of individuals and groups).

Furthermore, Organizational Behaviour draws on the field of Anthropology for lessons about how cultures and belief systems develop.

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PERSONALITY & ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

PERSONALITY DEFINED

In organizations, does personality matter? Ask that question of anybody who has spent any time in organizations or teams, and, intuitively, most will respond in the affirmative. Frequently, people will be more than willing to cite examples of how personalities have affected team performances or how personalities made life in an organization unbearable (or, an enjoyable experience). Personalities, in a study of organizational behaviour do matter.

So, what is personality? The word personality comes from the Latin root persona, meaning "mask." According to this root, personality is the impression we make on others; the mask we present to the world. Later in this discussion we'll allude to the word's origins as we discuss peoples' behaviours as manifestations of their personalities.

For purposes of our study, we'll define personality as "a unique set of traits and characteristics, relatively stable over time." Clearly, personality is unique insofar as each of us has our own personality, different from any other person's. Our definition further suggests that personality does not change from day to day. Over the short-term, our personalities are relatively set or stable. However, our definition does not suggest that personality is somehow rigid, unchangeable, and cast in concrete. Our definition recognizes that, over a longer term, personality may change.

To examine whether this change is indeed consistent with most peoples' reality, we ought to examine "where personality comes from"; what are the origins of personality?

THE ORIGINS OF PERSONALITY: THE NATURE-NURTURE DEBATE
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For psychologists studying the development of personality, "nature vs. nurture" was a central debate. "Nature vs. nurture" suggests that biology (a person's genes) and society (the environment in which a person grows up) are competing developmental forces. In the past, the debate sought to find whether one may be more important than the other. Today most psychologists would concede both nature and nurture are necessary for personality development. Both help to make us who we are.

One way to determine how genetics and environment affect personality is to turn to the study of behavior genetics. Looking at behavior of individuals, psychologists try to determine what percentage of that behavior is related to genetic differences and what percentage is related to environmental differences.

Twin studies are useful for studying genetic differences. For example, in order to understand the influence of both nature and nurture, we might study identical twins who share a home environment and have the same genetic makeup and fraternal twins who share a home environment but do not share the exact same genetic makeup. In such studies, researchers have found that genetic differences can account for 40 to 50 percent of differences in personality traits, while environmental influences account for about 30 percent of differences in personality traits.

What is the nature of these environmental influences? The home environment -- parents and siblings (and perhaps others in an extended family) -- plays a role in determining personality. Influences from outside the family are also important to the development of personality. Under the general rubric of "culture" we might include schools, churches, and other institutions with which an individual comes into contact.

To clearly distinguish between what constitutes nature, and what is nurture is difficult. For example, apparent "outside influences" may have more to do with genes than it would seem at first. People may seek out or even create environments to which they are genetically predisposed. A combative person is more likely than a peace-loving person to find an environment in which arguments are likely to take place.

Genes may not directly influence personality traits, but genes do govern the development of our nervous and endocrine systems. Hence, to the extent that body chemistry affects our behavior, we can argue that genetics influences personality. As an example, we can look at the relationship between testosterone and aggression. Men, on average, are more physically aggressive than women. Boys engage in far more roughhouse play than girls. Men also commit 90 percent of all violent crimes. Is testosterone the cause of this aggression? (Click for a discussion of aggression. Nature, Genetics, and Female versus Male Aggression: )
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In adulthood, men have up to ten times the amount of circulating testosterone typically found in women. Numerous studies have linked testosterone to aggression in other species, and some studies that have found the same relationship in humans.

We do know that prenatal testosterone irrevocably changes the brain structure of fetuses. Normally, only male babies are exposed to a significant amount of testosterone in the womb. Occasionally, though, female babies are exposed to testosterone-like hormones. When this happens, these girls later tend to engage in roughhouse play and show patterns of interests more typical of boys.
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CAN PERSONALITY BE MEASURED?

If we wish to measure the current in a electric circuit, we can insert an ammeter into the circuit. If we wish to measure the weight of some substance, we simply place that substance on scales designed to measure weight. What about personality? Unfortunately, we cannot directly "measure" personality. But if we cannot directly observe the seemingly unconscious, how do we know it exists?

The answer to the question lies in the fact that we can, in fact, directly observe behaviors. As students of human behavior, we are then left to infer personality from the behaviors it manifests.

Psychologists thus use behavioral indicators in constructing projective tests. These tests are designed to draw conclusions about personality from observed behaviors. For example, conclusions about personality traits and characteristics may be based on how people interpret ambiguous situations.

Perhaps the most famous projective test is the Rorschach inkblot test. Published in 1921, this test asks people to interpret what they see in an inkblot. The assumption is that, because the inkblots have no particular meaning, anything an individual says about them is shaped by their personality; they "project" elements of their personality onto what they see.

THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT)

Although the basic assumption of inkblot testing is sound, its reliability (ability to deliver the same results when given by different people in different situations) and validity (ability to test what it presumes to test) are suspect.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective test that offers more validity. The TAT consists of drawings or photographs of real-life situations. People taking the test are instructed to construct stories based on these images, and trained raters then score the recorded story for predefined themes. Psychologists assume that the stories people tell reflect the unconscious.
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It is obvious that people differ from each other...
How and why they differ is less clear and is an important part of the study of personality.


Research in personality ranges from analyses of genetic codes and studies of biological systems to the study of sexual, social, ethnic, and cultural bases of thought, feelings, and behavior. Personality research includes studies of cognitive abilities, interpersonal styles, and emotional reactivity.

We'll define personality as "a unique set of traits and characteristics, relatively stable over time."